Does Pale Skin Age Quicker
J Clin Aesthet Dermatol. 2016 Jan; 9(1): 31–38.
Published online 2016 Jan ane.
Crumbling Differences in Indigenous Peel
Neelam A. Vashi
aDepartment of Dermatology, Boston University Schoolhouse of Medicine, Boston, Massachusetts
Mayra Buainain De Castro Maymone
aDepartment of Dermatology, Boston Academy Schoolhouse of Medicine, Boston, Massachusetts
Roopal V. Kundu
bDepartment of Dermatology, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, Illinois
Abstruse
Aging is an inevitable and circuitous process that can exist described clinically equally features of wrinkles, sunspots, uneven peel color, and sagging peel. These cutaneous effects are influenced by both intrinsic and extrinsic factors and frequently are varied based on ethnic origin given underlying structural and functional differences. The authors sought to provide updated data on facets of aging and how it relates to indigenous variation given innate differences in pare construction and part. Publications describing structural and functional principles of ethnic and aging skin were primarily plant through a PubMed literature search and supplemented with a review of textbook chapters. The most common signs of skin crumbling despite skin type are night spots, loss of elasticity, loss of volume, and rhytides. Skin of color has many characteristics that make its crumbling process unique. Those of Asian, Hispanic, and African American descent have distinct facial structures. Differences in the concentration of epidermal melanin makes darkly pigmented persons more vulnerable to dyspigmentation, while a thicker and more compact dermis makes facial lines less noticeable. Ethnic skin comprises a large portion of the world population. Therefore, information technology is of import to sympathize the unique structural and functional differences amongst ethnicities to adequately care for the signs of crumbling.
Aging is a circuitous process in all homo societies reflecting biological, environmental, and genetic influences. It is multidimensional, comprising concrete, psychological, and social alter that is also influenced past cultural and societal standards. The cutaneous effects can be described clinically equally features of wrinkles, sunspots, uneven skin color, and sagging peel that are frequently varied based on ethnic origin.1 In addition to inherited genetic traits, a multitude of other factors can change the aging process, such as hormonal status and climatic, working, social, and cultural conditions.two
The association of youth and beauty is well accustomed in modern solar day social club. The homo desire for homogenous pare color and texture, absence of wrinkles and sagginess, and lustrous hair has fueled the corrective and surgical industries. Botulinum toxin, blepharoplasty, and soft-tissue fillers are amidst the many popular corrective treatments that enable the improvement in wrinkles, eyelid sagginess, and volume loss, respectively. Women who possess a youthful advent are consistently rated as more bonny than older-appearing women.3 - 9 In a cross-cultural study, across five populations, women were perceived equally more than attractive to the extent that their predicted ages were less than their actual ages.three Fifty-fifty when interviewers are explicitly instructed to conform for age and sex of participants, looks of younger people are rated more than favorably than those of older people.10 Studies on skin color and texture have demonstrated that humans accept a preference for younger-appearing skin that is viewed every bit both healthier and more attractive.11 - xiv Peel texture studies have shown that the effects of peel colour distribution tin account for up to 20 years of perceived historic period.eleven Understanding the fundamentals of mature skin is of import to an aging population where individuals are living longer and expected to exist productive into later years, while holding the strong desire to maintain a youthful advent.
Aging can be described clinically every bit features of wrinkles, sunspots, uneven skin color, and sagging peel. These cutaneous furnishings are influenced past both intrinsic and extrinsic factors and often are varied based on indigenous origin given underlying structural and functional differences. There are slight differences in the definitions of ethnicity and race; all the same, they are often used interchangeably in the medical literature. Ethnicity typically refers to broader groups of populations with a common culture and/or language, while race oftentimes represents a specific population in terms of genetic resemblance.xv In this article, the authors refer to indigenous skin as the wide range of pare phenotypes and complexions that characterize persons with darkly pigmented skin including those of African, African American, Asian, and Latino/Hispanic descent.
METHODS
Publications describing structural and functional principles of ethnic and aging skin were primarily institute through a PubMed literature search and supplemented with a review of relevant textbooks and textbook chapters. Keywords included skin aging, indigenous skin, skin of colour, youthful appearance, pare aging differences, and skin ethnic differences. Several articles were reviewed for relevancy from 1977 to March 2014, and 63 references were included. Literature included was of a variety of types including basic scientific discipline inquiry, randomized controlled trials, textbook articles, commentaries, and reviews.
INTRINSIC AND EXTRINSIC AGING
Aging is a biological reality with many contributing intrinsic and extrinsic factors. Similar to other organs, the man peel undergoes progressive functional decline due to the accumulation of molecular impairment.16 Oxidative stress and molecular harm contribute to both chronological (intrinsic) aging and aging as a consequence of environmental factors (extrinsic). As a consequence, aged skin exhibits many differences than youthful peel and also has a marked susceptibility to dermatologic disorders due to the structural and physiologic changes that occur with fourth dimensionxvi The principal signs of crumbling can be classified into four main categories of wrinkles/texture, lack of firmness, vascular disorders, and pigmentation heterogeneities.17
Intrinsic crumbling reflects the genetic background of an individual and occurs with the passage of time. Intrinsically aged skin is typically polish and unblemished.18 With chronological aging lonely, elderly will exhibit thin skin with fine wrinkles, fat cloudburst with soft tissue redistribution, and os remodeling.16 , 18 People of color exhibit less severe intrinsic facial aging with signs appearing a decade later than lighter skin types.
Extrinsic aging relates to environmental exposures, health, and lifestyle that are associated with individual habits, such as sun exposure, tobacco use, diet, and exercise.18 Cumulative sun exposure is the most important extrinsic cistron in aging pare. In skin types 3 to Half dozen, dyspigmentation is one of the most common features of photoaging. Mutual clinical signs of photoaging include lentigines, rhytides, telangiectasias, dark spots, and loss of elasticity.eighteen Skin of color is less susceptible to sun-induced damage so these clinical manifestations of aging are less severe and typically occur ten to 20 years later than those of historic period-matched white counterparts.19 Other extrinsic factors, such every bit smoking, excessive alcohol, and poor diet, can also contribute to premature skin aging.
Ethnic STRUCTURAL AND FUNCTIONAL DIFFERENCES
Ethnic patients have natural features that are unique, and what constitutes beauty is adamant by racial, cultural, and environmental influences.20 , 21 The most significant difference between people of color and Caucasians is the amount of melanin in the skin.21
Melanin is the major determinant of colour in the peel, and the concentration of epidermal melanin in melanosomes is double in darker peel types compared to lightly pigmented skin types.22 In add-on, melanosome degradation within the keratinocyte is slower in darkly pigmented skin. Overall, darker skin has singly dispersed, large melanosomes that contain more melanin compared with the smaller, aggregated, less melanin containing melanosomes that occur in lighter persons (Table 1). The melanin content and melanosomal dispersion pattern is idea to confer protection from accelerated aging induced past ultraviolet (UV) radiation.19 , 23 In fact, Kaidbey et al19 demonstrated that black epidermis, on average, provided a SPF of thirteen.four. Although the increased melanin provides protection from many harmful effects of UV radiation, including photodamage and pare cancers, information technology as well makes darkly pigmented peel more than vulnerable to dyspigmentation. Therefore, inconsistent pigmentation with both hypopigmentation and hyperpigmentation is a sign of photoaging in people with pare of colour.
Table i
Fundamental characteristics in ethnic skin and the dermatologic implications
| Characteristic | DERMATOLOGIC IMPLICATIONS |
|---|---|
| Increased tyrosinase action leading to increased melanin content | Greater photoprotection, lower incidence of skin cancer, less pronounced photoaging, dyschromias |
| Larger, nonaggregated melanosomes | Greater photoprotection, lower incidence of skin cancer, less pronounced photoaging, dyschromias |
| Labile melanocytes and slower melanin degradation | Dyschromias |
| Thick dermis | Preserved skin elasticity, less pronounced photoaging |
| Larger, more than numerous, multinucleated fibroblasts | Preserved peel elasticity, greater prevalence of hypertrophic scarring and keloids |
On a molecular level, in that location are multiple defined pigmentation genes, such as tyrosinase-related poly peptide (TRP) family members, melanocyte-stimulating hormone (MSH), melanocyte-stimulating hormone receptor, and the melanocortin-l-receptor, that also contribute to ethnic differences in pigmentation.21 TRP1 has been shown to increase tyrosinase activity, melanin synthesis, and melanosome size.21 This increase in tyrosinase action and melanin synthesis can explain differential responses to UV light. As well on a molecular level, MSH increases DNA repair proteins, which protects confronting sunday-induced DNA damage.21 , 24
Another component of skin colour is hemoglobin located at the dermal-epidermal junction in the papillary dermis. It is thought that skin colour is due to the balance between hemoglobin and melanin with the redness associated with hemoglobin being concealed by melanin to different extents.two
Skin aging is also associated with progressive atrophy of the dermis and changes in the architectural organization leading to folds and wrinkles.25 Asian and black skin has thicker and more compact dermis than white skin, with the thickness being proportional to the caste of pigmentation.26 This likely contributes to the lower incidence of facial rhytides in Asians and blacks. In addition, darker skin types are thought to have more cornified cell layers and greater lipid content compared to white stratum corneum.27 , 28
The major cell type of the dermis is the fibroblast, which synthesizes the main structural elements of the dermis. Black skin has been institute to have more than numerous, larger, and more nucleated fibroblasts, smaller collagen fiber bundles, and more macrophages than white skin.29 Chronological aging reduces the life span of fibroblasts; their potential for division existence lower in the elderly.25 Fibroblast functionality and reactivity likely contribute to both the crumbling phenomena and abnormal scarring.
Structural facial aging. Aging in regards to structural changes is caused by the volumetric loss of fatty, os resorption, and redistribution of soft tissue. Superficial and deep fat has an even distribution in younger faces; still, as the face ages, fat atrophy and hypertrophy cause irregular topographic contouring.21 With age, atrophy develops on the temples, cheeks, and lateral chin. These gradual, still dramatic, changes cause narrowing and elongation of the forehead with widening and shortening of the lower face.thirty In that location is too loss of lip book and os resorption of the mandible. Increased shadowing under the optics and increased protrusion of the infraorbital fat pads as well occur and contribute to an anile appearance. All of these underlying soft tissue changes contribute to the sagging appearance of overlying pare.31 These are full general principles, and the aging process does have ethnocentric variability in regards to both facial structure and perceptions of beauty (Table ii). Anthropometry is the quantitative measurement and ratio of facial features to guide standards of attractiveness. A total give-and-take of anthropometry is beyond the scope of this article; however, a cursory assay of indigenous facial structure variation is provided (Figures 1 and 2).
Tabular array 2
Ethnic groups and highlighted key differences in facial structure
| Ethnic Grouping | HIGHLIGHTED FACIAL STRUCTURE DIFFERENCES |
|---|---|
| Caucasian face | Narrower nasal base of operations and larger tip projection, intercanthal widths identical to the African face, lips with less volume |
| Due east Asian face | Weaker facial skeletal framework, wider and rounder face, higher eyebrows, fuller upper hat, lower nasal bridge with horizontally placed flared ala, flatter malar prominence and midface, more protuberant lips, and more receded chin |
| Latino/Hispanic face up | Increased bizygomatic distance, bimaxillary protrusion, broader nose, wide rounded face, and a more than receded chin |
| African-American confront | Broad nasal base, decreased nasal project, bimaxillary protrusion, orbital proptosis, increased soft tissue of the midface, prominent lips, and increased facial convexity |
Women, all over threescore years of age, with characteristic features of facial aging, from left to right: Caucasian, E Asian, Latino/Hispanic, and African.
Features of facial aging in (A) Caucasian; (B) Due east Asian; (C) Latino/Hispanic; and (D) African American women.
The Caucasian face. Although the purpose of this commodity is to highlight aging in indigenous skin, the authors briefly discuss the key attributes of the Caucasian face as a bespeak of reference. The term Caucasian is normally used to refer to the combination of concrete attributes of individuals of European, Northern African, and southwest Asian ancestry.32 This grouping comprises those of lightly pigmented skin, demonstrated by minor, aggregated melanosomes along with reduced amounts of melanin. The decreased epidermal melanin component predisposes Caucasians to develop earlier signs of photoaging than other populations. European Americans with low constitutive pigmentation accept considerably higher burn response and lower tanning power compared with Hispanics and East Asians.33 In improver, Caucasian skin is exemplified by a thinner and less cohesive stratum corneum, reduced pare extensibility, along with loss of collagen and disorganization of the elastic fibers in the dermis with increasing age.15 These attributes result in clinically frail skin and contribute to the crumbling procedure.
A large anthropometric study comparing different ethnic groups with North American Caucasians revealed that the near meaning differences in facial proportions were in the orbital region, nasal heights, and nasal widths.34 Caucasian intercanthal widths were identical to the African ethnic group, in contrast with the Centre Eastern and Asian groups that showed greater intercanthal widths with smaller eye opening. A narrower nasal base and larger tip projection was noted in Caucasians compared to Asians and African Americans.34
The Caucasian aged face has somewhat specific features and is typified by fine perioral and periorbital rhytides, skin sagging, and jowling of the cervix with effacement of the cervicomental angle secondary to pare laxity.35 On the upper face up, the aging process presents equally fine and deep rhytides in the forehead and glabella. In general, crumbling of the midfacial region occurs as the effect of laxity of the upper and lower eyelids, pseudoherniation of the orbital fat pads, increased back-up of soft tissue, and descent of the melolabial fatty pad toward the nasolabial fold.36 Bone remodeling of the superomedial and inferolateral orbital rims likely also contributes to forehead ptosis and germination of crow's feet and lower lid lag, respectively.37 The stop event of these many changes is dermatochalasis or excessive skin of the upper lid, lengthening of the lower lid, prominence of the nasolabial folds, and a double convexity of the midface.36 On the lower face and neck, the Caucasian face up demonstrates sagging and jowling due to skin laxity, resulting in blurring of the cervicomental angle.30 , 37 Decreased lip volume and perioral lip lines are as well more than pronounced in Caucasian skin, likely due to a combination of muscle activity and the deleterious effects of UV exposure on lighter pare.
The Asian face. The Asian population is quite diverse. Literature is limited and has typically focused on a particular ethnicity or a pocket-size number of outcomes in several Asian populations, mostly from Eastern asia. Although literature is limited and without a full, thorough comparison, there are many differences that have been noted. East Asians typically accept less wide mouths, elongated intercanthal width, and wider lower nasal margins.38 Studies suggest that Asians take a weaker facial skeletal framework, which results in greater gravitational soft-tissue descent of the mid-face, malar fat pad ptosis, and tear trough formation. It has as well been proposed that the facial structure of Asians is similar to that of an babe, including a wider and rounder face, higher eyebrow, fuller upper lid, lower nasal bridge with horizontally placed flared ala, flatter malar prominence and midface, fuller and more protuberant lips, and more receded chin.39 , 40
Despite the big South East Asian population, limited studies have been conducted assessing facial structure. Overall, there is tremendous variability over such a large geographic area and various population. Despite this, information technology is by and large accepted that those from the Indian subcontinent share more Caucasoid than Mongoloid anatomical traits of the skull and face. Compared to E Asians, South Asians typically possess eyelids that are on a more highly exposed platform, have well-developed nasal span with tip projection, and accept insufficiently darker and more uneven skin tones. Also, South Asians tend to have fuller lips and higher cheek bones with more than buccal fat, oftentimes giving the lower cheek a more rounded contour. These features ofttimes provide concrete back up for the aging face more so than other Asian ethnicities.
Galzote et al41 evaluated facial peel of various Asian populations (from Communist china, Bharat, Southward Korea, Japan, and the Philippines) in different historic period groups. In regards to particular groups, they constitute that subjects from Japan generally had greater peel surface wet across all age groups, while subjects from Red china had the highest average levels of transepidermal water loss (TEWL), indicating poorer stratum corneum barrier role.41 Across all Asian populations, skin surface moisture and TEWL mostly decreased with increasing age (except for teenagers) with skin of subjects from the Philippines and India having the least variation with historic period.41 Those from Seoul, South korea, and Calicut, India, had the highest sebum readings. Sebum content decreased with age, with the exception of subjects in the 25- to 40-year age grouping.41 With increasing female age, hormones such every bit estrogen pb to less sebum production past the sebaceous glands and reduced stratum corneum bulwark function resulting in drier skin.41 - 43 In regards to pare colour, they found that subjects from Calicut, India, had the darkest pare while those from Sendai, Nihon had the lightest, with correlations of both melanin and erythema indices suggesting that skin color may be a reflection of both the melanin content and hemoglobin level in the pare, both higher in those with darker skin tones.41 Interestingly, with age, the melanin index increased, while the erythema alphabetize stayed the same in all Asian populations studied.41
The Latino or Hispanic face up. Akin to Asians, in that location is a broad variety of skin types and ethnicities comprising the term "Latinos" and/or "Hispanics." The multifariousness of peel blazon plays a large role in peel response and facial structure differences. This group as well has increased melanization, which provides enhanced protection against photoaging; yet, they do develop peel mottling, jowl formation, infraorbital hollowness, and shadowing.21 , 44 Central and South American women often have similar anthropometric measurements to Caucasian women, while Caribbean area women measurements are often more similar to African American women.45 , 46 Those persons of Mexican descent often exhibit a broad face with prominent malar eminence and broad nose with widened alar base of operations, curt columella, horizontally oriented nostrils, and thick nasal skin.47 , 48 Overall, persons of Hispanic descent accept increased bizygomatic distance, bimaxillary protrusion, broader nose, abbreviated nasal length, wide rounded face, and a recessed chin.21 , 49 They tend to have more sebaceous peel than Caucasian women and typically accept rounder faces, with heavy eyelids and prominent midface area.35 , 50 Similar to African American facial aging, the midcheek expanse becomes thicker and heavier with fat pad accumulation and more prominent nasolabial folds, which is combined with eyebrow and eyelid drooping and lower lid fatty herniation.35
The African American face. The term African American encompasses multiple ethnicities and represents persons with a mixture of African, Caucasian, Afro-Caribbean area, and Native American descent.36 Generalizations on a global scale are frequently quite hard to make for this group as all these lineages volition display unique facial structures and qualities. At that place are, even so, some key features that do distinguish those of African ancestry from other racial groups. Those of African descent take more than non-aggregated melanosomes that are more widely dispersed and carry more than melanin. In addition to differences in pigmentation, the epidermis contains a thicker stratum corneum with more active fibroblasts when compared to Caucasian peel.36 The increased fibroblast activity leads to collagen bundles that are meaty and in a more parallel orientation, creating pare that maintains its structural integrity and youthful appearance longer than those of lighter skin types.23 , 36
Given the increased melanization of richly pigmented African American pare, this population does not develop as much UV-induced photoaging as those with lightly pigmented peel. However, these persons tin exhibit pronounced sagging of the malar fat pads, soft-tissue laxity, and jowl formation of the mid-face.21 African Americans typically accept a wide nasal base, decreased nasal project, bimaxillary protrusion, orbital proptosis, increased soft tissue of the midface, prominent lips, and increased facial convexity.21 , 49 Of note, at that place is interethnic variability, with studies revealing ii types of African American nasal construction, i with a loftier dorsum and one with a low dorsum.51
The unique skeletal morphology leads those of African descent to show facial aging in the periorbital region and midface more prominently than the upper face and brow.36 It has been suggested that brow ptosis occurs to a lesser degree in those of African descent.52 The upper eyelids in African Americans are decumbent to soft tissue fullness, which is related to the position of the upper lid crease, being six to 8mm from the hat margin compared with 8 to 10mm in Caucasians.36 , 53 The relative ocular proptosis predisposes to infraorbital shadowing, which can contribute to the advent of aging. In addition, opposed to the Caucasian face, which has a malar eminence that is in alignment with the corneal surface, the African confront exhibits malar hypoplasia, created by a negative corneal surface. Soft-tissue jowling is also a sign of aging; however, as opposed to the laxity and descent of Caucasian skin, it is the thickness and weight of African skin that contribute to jowling.36 , 53 Accumulation of submental fat and protuberant thick skin on the cervix soften the cervicomental angle.35 Lip aging occurs less so in African Americans as these persons have a decreased propensity to lose lip book and form perioral rhytides.36
PHOTOAGING
Extrinsic photoaging secondary to the furnishings of UV radiation leads to prematurely aged skin. It is characterized by coarse and fine wrinkling, mottled pigmentation, textural roughness, telangiectasia, and sallowness.21 Overall, indigenous persons have increased epidermal melanin and too a thicker dermis, thereby revealing less photodamage than lighter pigmented patients. In a report analyzing the heterogeneity of cheek pare color, historic period-related changes in melanin were detected in both Asian and Caucasian skin, and, furthermore, it was found that heterogeneity indexes of hemoglobin were significantly higher in Caucasian than Asian skin.54
Although darker skinned persons have overall less rhytides, they practice develop mottled pigmentation, rough skin, dermatosis papulosa nigra, seborrheic keratoses, and solar lentigines. In a study comparison historic period-matched Chinese women to Caucasian-French women, the groups did non differ in the assessment of lifelong sun exposure; however, the study revealed that although wrinkle onset was delayed by ten years, pigmented spot intensity was much more prevalent in Chinese women as compared to French Caucasians.55 In some other study comparing 500 historic period-matched women from Nihon and France, the groups displayed no departure with respect to smoking habits or self-reported lifetime dominicus exposure and revealed that solar damage and rhytidosis occurred at an earlier age and with increased severity in French than Japanese women.56 In addition, the written report revealed that pigmented spots occurred more than frequently and earlier in life in Japanese women than in French women. Furthermore, Hillebrand et al. likewise looked at aging differences in two Japanese cities to evaluate geographic location and photoaging, confirming that photoaging occurred several years earlier in women from a city closer to the equator and with more UV exposure.57 While many studies have suggested that pigment changes are the principal manifestations of photodamage in Asians, more than recent studies have shown that wrinkles and laxity, followed by hyperpigmentation demonstrate the greatest alter with increasing age, suggesting that these may be the all-time markers for clinical aging.41 , 58 - 60
Intrinsic elasticity is defined as the ratio of the pare elongation to its render during exertion of negative pressure, while fatigability is defined as the difference between the return of the skin during the start and 3rd applications of negative pressure.41 , 61 Galzote et al. found that pare elasticity consistently declined with age while fatigability increased with age across Asian populations studied, likely secondary to a combination of a decrease in epidermal cell turnover and increase in collagen crosslinks.41 The increment in collagen crosslinks with historic period may be associated with advanced glycation end products (Historic period), which may inhibit pare repair and prison cell turnover.41 , 61 The process of glycation starts quite early in life and varies co-ordinate to diet and also ultraviolet exposure, which independently increases cross-linking in the pare.62 In addition, it has been shown that in Asian populations, differences in skincare habits correspond with variations in peel parameters; subjects with the least severe photodamage reported a generally early onset of their skincare habits related to sun exposure, facial cleansing, make-up usage, and sun protection product usage.41
CULTURAL DIFFERENCES
Irrespective of skin type, all individuals complain about dark spots and uneven skin color, but in dissimilar means according to their ethnic origin. With age, Asian skin becomes darker and more than yellow compared to Caucasian skin, which becomes darker and redder.ane , 2 In regards to pigmentation and UV exposure, acceptable social norms also greatly differ betwixt ethnicities. In the United States, many persons of all racial groups prefer the advent of tanned, uniform peel and have concerns regarding uneven skin tone independent of underlying baseline pigmentation. These views differ worldwide. In Due south E Asia, many women adopt fair over tanned skin. Overall, uneven pare tone is a great concern and studies accept shown that visible skin colour distribution plays an important function in the perception of attractiveness.63
SUMMARY
Across all pare types, the aging process involves photodamage, fatty redistribution, bone shifting, and the loss of connective tissue. Every bit life expectancy continues to increment, about doubling over the past century, an aged appearance is becoming an increasing concern. Ethnic differences are conspicuously axiomatic in today's society; however, equally time elapses, the groups described in this article are condign less homogenous and more than heterogeneous through the intermixing of races, cultures, and ethnicities. Individuals with darker skin are overall thought to have firmer and smoother pare than individuals with lighter pare of the same historic period; withal, crumbling does occur in regards to mottled pigmentation, wrinkles, and skin laxity. A comprehensive knowledge of the structural and functional principles of ethnic and aging skin is helpful to properly treat the crumbling skin of colour population.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors would like to acknowledge Dr. Alexandre Maymone for his expert artistic renderings in Effigy ii.
Footnotes
DISCLOSURE:The authors study no relevant conflicts of interest.
REFERENCES
i. Halder R, Richards Thou. Photoaging in patients of skin colour. In: Rigel D, Weiss R, Lim H, Dover J, editors. Photoaging. New York: Marcel Dekker; 2004. pp. 55–63. [Google Scholar]
2. de Rigal J, Des Mazis I, Diridollou Southward, et al. The effect of age on skin color and color heterogeneity in iv ethnic groups. Peel Res Technol. 2010;sixteen(ii):168–178. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
three. Jones D, Brace C, Jankowiak W, et al. Sexual selection, physical attractiveness, and facial neoteny: cross-cultural evidence and implications [and comments and reply] Gurr Anthropol. 1995;36(v):723–748. [Google Scholar]
4. McArthur L, Apatow K. Impressions of infant-faced adults. Social Cognition. 1984;2:315–342. [Google Scholar]
5. Cunningham G. Measuring the physical in physical attractiveness: quasiexperiments on the sociobiology of female facial beauty. J Pers Soc Psychol. 1986;50:925–935. [Google Scholar]
half dozen. Perrett DI, May KA, Yoshikawa S. Facial shape and judgements of female person attractiveness. Nature. 1994;368(6468):239–242. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
vii. Johnston VS, Franklin M. Is beauty in the eye of the beholder? Ethology and Sociobiology. 1993;fourteen(3):183–199. [Google Scholar]
8. Jones D, Hill K. Criteria of facial attractiveness in 5 populations. Human Nature. 1993;four:271–296. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
ix. O'Toole A, Toll T, Vetter T, et al. 3D shape and 2nd surface textures of human faces: the role of "averages" in attractiveness and age. Image Vis Comput. 1999;18:nine–19. [Google Scholar]
ten. Hamermesh DS. Beauty pays: why attractive people are more successful. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton Academy Press; 2011. p. 232. [Google Scholar]
11. Fink B, Grammar K, Matts P. Visible skin color distribution plays a office in the perception of age, attractiveness, and wellness in female faces. Evol Hum Behau. 2006;27(6):433–442. [Google Scholar]
12. Fink B, Matts PJ, D'Emiliano D, et al. Colour homogeneity and visual perception of age, health and attractiveness of male facial skin. J Eur Acad Dermatol Venereol. 2012;26(12):1486–1492. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
13. Fink B, Bunse L, Matts PJ, D'Emiliano D. Visible skin colouration predicts perception of male facial age, health and attractiveness. Int J Cosmet Sci. 2012;34(4):307–310. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
14. Matts PJ, Fink B, Grammer Thousand, Burquest Grand. Colour homogeneity and visual perception of age, health, and attractiveness of female person facial skin. J Am Acad Dermatol. 2007;57(6):977–984. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
15. Rawlings AV. Ethnic skin types: are there differences in skin structure and function? Int J Cosmet Sci. 2006;28(ii):79–93. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
sixteen. Durai PC, Thappa DM, Kumari R, Malathi M. Aging in elderly: chronological versus photoaging. Indian J Dermatol. 2012;57(five):343–352. [PMC complimentary article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
17. Flament F, Bazin R, Laquieze Southward, et al. Effect of the sun on visible clinical signs of aging in Caucasian skin. Clin Cosmet Investig Dermatol. 2013;vi:221–232. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
18. Alam M, Kundu R, Yoo S, et al. Cosmetic Dermatology for Skin of Color. McGraw Hill; 2009. [Google Scholar]
19. Kaidbey KH, Agin PP, Sayre RM, Kligman AM. Photoprotection past melanin—a comparison of black and Caucasian peel. J Am Acad Dermatol. 1979;1(three):249–260. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
20. Elgart ML. Defining skin of color. Cutis. 2003;71(2):142. author reply 3; give-and-take iii. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
21. Talakoub Fifty, Wesley NO. Differences in perceptions of beauty and corrective procedures performed in ethnic patients. Semin Cutan Med Surg. 2009;28(2):115–129. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
22. Iozumi Thousand, Hoganson GE, Pennella R, et al. Role of tyrosinase as the determinant of pigmentation in cultured human melanocytes. J Invest Dermatol. 1993;100(6):806–811. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
23. Taylor SC. Skin of color: biology, structure, function, and implications for dermatologie disease. J Am Acad Dermatol. 2002;46(2 Suppl Agreement):S41–S62. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
24. Bohm M, Wolff I, Scholzen TE, et al. Alpha-melanocyte-stimulating hormone protects from ultraviolet radiation-induced apoptosis and DNA impairment. J Biol Chem. 2005;280(seven):5795–5802. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
25. Lapiere CM. The ageing dermis: the main cause for the appearance of "old" skin. Br J Dermatol. 1990;122(Suppl 35):five–11. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
26. Montagna W, Prota Chiliad, Kenney J. The structure of black skin. In: Montagna W, Prota Chiliad, Kenney J, editors. Blackness Skin Construction and Part. Gulf Professional Publishing; 1993. [Google Scholar]
27. Sugino K, Imokawa Chiliad, Maibach H. Ethnic differences in stratum corneum lipid in relation to stratum corneum office (abstr) J Invest Dermatol. 1993;100:594. [Google Scholar]
28. Berardesca E, de Rigal J, Leveque JL, Maibach HI. In vivo biophysical label of peel physiological differences in races. Dermatologica. 1991;182(two):89–93. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
29. Montagna W, Carlisle One thousand. The architecture of black and white facial skin. J Am Acad Dermatol. 1991;24(6 Pt l):929–937. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
30. Patel U, Fitzgerald R. Facial shaping: beyond lines and folds with fillers. J Drugs Dermatol. 2010;9(8 Suppl ODAC Conf Pt 2):s129–s137. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
31. Burgess CM. Soft tissue augmentation in skin of color: market growth, available fillers, and successful techniques. J Drugs Dermatol. 2007;6(1):51–55. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
33. Wagner JK, Parra EJ, H LN, et al. Pare responses to ultraviolet radiation: effects of constitutive pigmentation, sex, and ancestry. Pigment cell research / sponsored by the European Club for Pigment Prison cell Research and the International. Paint Cell Society. 2002;fifteen(5):385–390. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
34. Farkas LG, Katie MJ, Forrest CR, et al. International anthropometric study of facial morphology in diverse ethnic groups/races. J Graniofac Surg. 2005;16(four):615–646. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
35. Alexis AF, Alam M. Racial and indigenous differences in peel aging: implications for treatment with soft tissue fillers. J Drugs Dermatol. 2012;xi(eight):s30–s32. discussion s2. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
36. Brissett AE, Naylor MC. The aging African-American face up. Facial Plast Surg. 2010;26(two):154–163. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
37. Shaw RB, Jr.,, Katzel EB, Koltz PF, et al. Crumbling of the facial skeleton: aesthetic implications and rejuvenation strategies. Plast Reconstruct Surg. 2011;127(i):374–383. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
38. McKnight A, Momoh AO, Bullocks JM. Variations of structural components: specific intercultural differences in facial morphology, skin type, and structures. Semin Plast Surg. 2009;23(3):163–167. [PMC free commodity] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
39. Shirakabe Y, Suzuki Y, Lam SM. A new prototype for the aging Asian face. Aesthetic Plast Surg. 2003;27(v):397–402. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
40. Wong WW, Davis DG, Camp MC, Gupta SC. Contribution of lip proportions to facial aesthetics in dissimilar ethnicities: a three-dimensional analysis. J Plast Reconstr Aesthet Surg. 2010;63(12):2032–2039. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
41. Galzote C, Estanislao R, Suero MO, et al. Characterization of facial skin of various Asian populations through visual and noninvasive instrumental evaluations: influence of historic period and skincare habits. Peel Res Technol. 2013;19(4):454–465. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
42. Man MQ, Xin SJ, Song SP, Cho SY, Zhang XJ, Tu CX, et al. Variation of skin surface pH, sebum content and stratum corneum hydration with age and gender in a large Chinese population. Skin Pharmacol Physiol. 2009;22(4):190–199. [PMC gratis article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
43. Shah MG, Maibach HI. Estrogen and skin. An overview. Am J Clin Dermatol. 2001;2(3):143–150. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
44. Matory W. Crumbling in people of color. In: Matory W, editor. Ethnic Considerations in Facial Aesthetic Surgery. Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott-Raven; 1998. pp. 151–170. [Google Scholar]
45. Milgrim LM, Lawson West, Cohen AF. Anthropometric analysis of the female Latino nose. Revised aesthetic concepts and their surgical implications. Arch Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 1996;122(10):1079–1086. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
46. Crumley RL, Lanser M. Quantitative analysis of nasal tip project. Laryngoscope. 1988;98(ii):202–208. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
47. Ortiz-Monasterio F, Olmedo A. Rhinoplasty on the mestizo olfactory organ. Clin Plast Surg. 1977;4(1):89–102. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
48. Sanchez AE. Rhinoplasty in the "Chata" nose of the Caribbean. Artful Plast Surg. 1980;4(1):169–177. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
49. Grimes P. Beauty: A historical and societal perspective. In: Grimes P, Kim J, Hexsel D, Soriano T, editors. Aesthetics and Cosmetic Surgery for Darker Skin Types. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 2007. pp. nine–x. [Google Scholar]
50. Cobo R, Garcia CA. Aesthetic surgery for the Mestizo/Hispanic patient: special considerations. Facial Plastic Surg. 2010;26(2):164–173. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
51. Porter JP, Olson KL. Anthropometric facial analysis of the African American woman. Arch Facial Plast Surg. 2001;3(3):191–197. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
52. Harris MO. The aging face in patients of color: minimally invasive surgical facial rejuvenation-a targeted approach. Dermatol Ther. 2004;17(two):206–211. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
53. Mattory West. Ethnic Considerations in Facial Aesthetic Surgery. Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott-Raven; 1998. [Google Scholar]
54. Kikuchi K, Masuda Y, Yamashita T, et al. Prototype analysis of pare color heterogeneity focusing on skin chromophores and the historic period-related changes in facial skin. Peel Res Technol. 2014. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
55. Nouveau-Richard S, Yang Z, Mac-Mary S, et al. Skin aging: a comparison betwixt Chinese and European populations. A airplane pilot study. J Dermatol Sci. 2005;xl(three):187–193. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
56. Morizot F, Guehenneux S, Dheurle Southward, et al. Do features of aging differ between Asian and Caucasian women. J Invest Dermatol. 2004;123:A67. [Google Scholar]
57. Hillebrand GG, Miyamoto M, Schnell B, et al. Quantitative evaluation of skin condition in an epidemiological survey of females living in northern versus southern Japan. J Dermatol Sci. 2001;27(Suppl 1):S42–S52. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
58. Goh SH. The handling of visible signs of senescence: the Asian experience. Br J Dermatol. 1990;122(Suppl 35):405–109. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
59. Griffiths CE, Wang TS, Hamilton TA, et al. A photonumeric scale for the cess of cutaneous photodamage. Arch Dermatol. 1992;128(3):347–151. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
lx. Larnier C, Ortonne JP, Venot A, et al. Evaluation of cutaneous photodamage using a photographic scale. Br J Dermatol. 1994;130(ii):167–173. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
61. Couturaud V, Coutable J, Khaiat A. Skin biomechanical properties: in vivo evaluation of influence of age and body site by a noninvasive method. Skin Res Technol. 1995;one:68–73. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
62. Danby FW. Nutrition and aging skin: sugar and glycation. Clin Dermatol. 2010;28(iv):409–411. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
63. Fink B, Grammer K, Thornhill R. Human (Homo sapiens) facial attractiveness in relation to skin texture and color. J Comp Psychol (Washington, DC). 2001;115(1):92–99. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
Articles from The Periodical of Clinical and Artful Dermatology are provided here courtesy of Matrix Medical Communications
Source: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4756870/
Posted by: harperdefortessid.blogspot.com
0 Response to "Does Pale Skin Age Quicker"
Post a Comment